Civility in Warfare

 

 Civility in Warfare

It is difficult to conceive of putting the words ‘civility’ and ‘warfare’ in the same sentence, because it stretches the bounds of reason to imagine anything civil or humane about war. In modern times we look upon The Hague Regulations and The Geneva Conventions as attempts to bring some semblance of humanity or civility to the organized and armed belligerency of warring parties. But we are hard-pressed to consider that such protocols may have existed in ancient Greece and that they may have played a part in the fabled war between the Greeks and the Trojans. But a careful reading of Homer’s Iliad shows us that, contrary to our beliefs, war was conducted in a surprising and somewhat ‘gentlemanly’ way by the two sides in the conflict. There are several examples of such civility in the narrative.

In fact, in ancient Greece, truces and ceasefires were common in warfare and ranged from temporary halts in the fighting to recover the bodies of the dead for burial or cremation, to more formal and wider suspensions of conflict. The most famous example in Greek history is the Olympic Truce (Ekecheiria) which began with the first Olympic Games in 776 BCE. The word ‘Ekecheiria’ means ‘holding back one’s hands’. The first instance of such a truce was a treaty between the kings of Elis, Pisa and Sparta that allowed athletes, spectators and pilgrims to travel safely and without attack to and from Olympia in the Peloponnese, where the games were being held. It started as a one month truce beginning seven days before the games and ending seven days after their conclusion, but was extended to three months by the 5^th century BCE. Hostilities were not permitted in the region, no arms could be carried into Olympia, death penalties were suspended for the duration of the games and heavy fines were levied for any violations, all of which were considered direct offences against Zeus himself.

In addition to the Olympic Truce, there were several other examples of peace or diplomatic treaties that were undertaken in ancient Greece. The Thirty Years Peace was signed in 445 BCE to halt the war between Athens and Sparta. The Peace of Nicias in 421 BCE was supposed to be a 50 year peace designed to end the first half of the Peloponnesian War but there were many violations that rendered it largely ignored. The Common Peace (Koine Eirene) was a concept that was developed in the 4^th century BCE to foster a lasting peace among the various Greek city-states and to recognize their autonomy and equality.

The establishment of a truce was generally carried out following a series of specific steps. First a proposal was made and an agreement was reached. A separate third party was appointed to observe the truce and the pact itself was sealed with solemn religious oaths and was often accompanied by sacrifices and the pouring out of libations. These rituals served the purpose of invoking the gods to witness the truce and in so doing, established the fact that a violation of the truce would bring divine punishment upon the offender and their children. Agreed-upon truces were considered to be very serious matters and were deeply rooted in religious practice.

Early in Book III of the Iliad we find an example of such a truce. Hector had been chiding Alexander (Paris) about his behaviour with Helen and the guilty party made a proposal to end the ongoing war. Hector then proclaimed it to both sides seeking their approval.

“Listen to me my Trojans and well-greaved Achaeans and I will tell you what Alexander has said, he on whose account all this trouble has arisen. He exhorts the other Trojans and all the Achaeans to put down their arms onto the bounteous earth while he and war-loving Menelaus fight alone for Helen and all her possessions. Whichever of the two is mightier and prevails, he shall take away the woman and all her goods. All of the others will then share oaths of love and friendship towards each other.”

            Menelaus ratified the agreement, proposed the ritual sacrifices and libations necessary for its adoption, and the appointment of Priam as the oath-taker. All of these steps were required for an official truce and this undertaking of a one-on-one battle to end the war.

Menelaus, good with the war-cry, addressed them. “Listen to me now for sorrow has visited my spirit. I believe that the Argives and the Trojans must be separated from one another for you have all suffered terribly on account of my fight and the trouble which Alexander has initiated. So for whichever of the two of us fate and death has been ordained, then let him die and let all the others be separated quickly. So bring forth two lambs, one white and one black, one for Tellus and one for Helios and also bring another one for Zeus. And bring forward mighty Priam himself to make an oath lest anyone break the promises made to Zeus, since Priam’s children are deceivers and cannot be trusted. For the hearts and the minds of young men are unstable, but when an old man acts, he looks both forward and backwards, and that will ensure the best outcome for all concerned.”

            It was quite clear to all concerned what the penalty would be if the agreement was breached in any way:

And members of both the Achaeans and Trojans spoke. “O Zeus most glorious and greatest and all the other immortal gods, whichever of these two before you breaks this sacred oath, let his brain flow down upon the ground like this wine flows. Be it done to him and to his children and let his wife be overpowered by others in her bed.”

The people prayed to the gods and lifted their hands up high and someone of both the Achaeans and the Trojans spoke. “O father Zeus ruling from Ida most glorious and great, whichever of these two brought such evils upon us, let him be destroyed and cast into the abode of Hades, but let friendship and faithful oaths come unto the rest of us.”

            But we know that Aphrodite could not bear to see Alexander slain, he who had chosen her as the fairest at the Judgement of Paris. She intervened in the fight, prevented Menelaus from killing Alexander and then spirited the Trojan away and returned him to his wife’s bedchamber. The truce was officially broken when Pandarus was convinced by the goddess to shoot an arrow at Menelaus. He did so and wounded the Spartan king. His brother Agamemnon then encouraged the Achaeans to return to the battle for the sacred oath had been broken.

“Argives do not hold back on your great courage to fight for our father Zeus will not aid those Trojans who were deceitful. Indeed vultures will consume the soft flesh of those who were the first to break a sacred oath. We will indeed carry off in our ships not only their wives but also their infant children once their citadel has been destroyed.”

            We witness a different kind of truce in Book VI of the Iliad. Diomedes and Glaucus were about to do battle with one another and started a conversation about their backgrounds and families. It came to light that their fathers had known one another and had visited in the past. Under the customs associated with Xenia, this type of guest-friendship was deemed to pass from one generation to another. That being the case, these two warriors recognized that they were prohibited from fighting with each other.

“So I am indeed a dear guest friend of yours in the middle of Argos, as you are of me in Lycia whenever I would come there. But let us avoid the spears of each other within the fray, for there are many Trojans and renowned allies for me to overrun and kill and by the same token, there as many Achaeans around as you can kill. So let us exchange armour with one another so that everyone will know that we are ancestral mutual friends.” Having spoken thus, they leaped down from their horses, seized the hands of each other and pledged their mutual faith.

            Likewise in Book VII, we find another example of an unusual truce. Hector and Ajax had been fighting and night came upon them. With great civility they agreed to cease fighting for the day, to exchange gifts of friendship and to withdraw from the battlefield until another day.

Then Hector with the swift-glancing helmet spoke to him. “Ajax, since god has granted you size and strength and wisdom, and since you are the best of the Achaeans with the spear, then let us indeed do cease our hostilities for today only. We will fight again later, at least until this divine one separates us and gives victory to one of us. Night is coming on and it is good to obey the night and for you to have an opportunity to gather and rejoice with all the Achaeans near the ships, especially your relatives and comrades. I myself will go through the great city of Priam and give cheer to the Trojans and to the women carrying the peplum for the goddess and going into her temple to pray on my behalf. Come now and let us both give lovely gifts to one another, so that people of both the Achaeans and the Trojans might say that, though we both fought in gut-wrenching battle, still we reconciled and parted as friends.”

            At the end of the Iliad we witness the dissipation of the wrath of Achilles as he agrees to withhold his forces from the fighting for as long as King Priam needs for the funeral of his son Hector. He agrees to enforce a twelve day ceasefire.

“But come now and tell me the whole truth. For how many days are you planning to hold funeral rites for the godlike Hector, so that I know how long it will be that I have to keep back the throng from you?”

Thereupon the old man, the godlike Priam, answered him. “If you are willing that we hold funeral rites for the godlike Hector, then in doing so you will be acting as I so wish. You know that we are locked up within the city and it is a long way to go to the mountains to collect wood and the Trojans are very afraid. For nine days we will mourn for him within the city and on the tenth day we will honour him with funeral rites and hold a banquet for the people and on the eleventh day we will erect his funeral mound and on the twelfth day we will wage battle, if indeed we are required to do so.”

Then the swift-footed godlike Achilles answered him. “This will all happen as you so desire aged Priam and I will hold us back from battle for as long as you have outlined to me.”

            In a great tribute to Homer, Irish poet Michael Longley wrote his poem entitled “Ceasefire” to try and convince the leaders of the IRA to make peace during the “troubles” in his land. It was his firm belief that poetry makes things happen.

Ceasefire by Michael Longley

I

Put in mind of his own father and moved to tears

Achilles took him by the hand and pushed the old king

Gently away, but Priam curled up at his feet and

Wept with him until their sadness filled the building.

 

II

Taking Hector's corpse into his own hands Achilles

Made sure it was washed and, for the old king's sake,

Laid out in uniform, ready for Priam to carry

Wrapped like a present home to Troy at daybreak.

 

III

When they had eaten together, it pleased them both

To stare at each other's beauty as lovers might,

Achilles built like a god, Priam good-looking still

And full of conversation, who earlier had sighed:

 

IV

'I get down on my knees and do what must be done

And kiss Achilles' hand, the killer of my son.'

 

            In ancient Greek warfare, ‘civility’ was a mixture of gentlemanly conventions and religiously-based practices. But brutal total-war efforts were also undertaken with the slaughter of all enemy warriors and civilian men and boys and the enslavement of all others. Cities were totally razed in the aftermath of war and homes, crops and orchards were destroyed. Any civilized conventions regarding ceasefires, truces and peace treaties usually only applied to wars involving other Greeks and did not apply to conflicts with non-Greeks.

           

            Warfare was somewhat ritualized and was viewed as a contest by the ancient Greeks. Armies faced off against each other at an appointed time and in a designated place. Battles were generally short because, other than for Sparta which had a professional army, most Greek armies were composed of farmers and citizens who had to return to their jobs after the battle. There were protocols in place for deciding which side was the winner. The loser was expected to accept the defeat and to pledge not to fight again immediately. Religion and divine law dictated many of the practices of warfare, for example the sacred duty to allow both sides to recover and bury their dead. Heralds were considered sacred messengers and temples were off limits for fighting. Many of these rules were cast aside in the foe was considered to be non-Greek barbarian.

 

            War was considered as an economic opportunity in many cases, as is suggested for the real reason behind the Achaean invasion of Troy. It was also looked upon as a means to achieving peace. But on a personal level, war was viewed by the participants as a means to gain Kleos or everlasting glory. In summary, ‘civility’ in Greek warfare was less about granting mercy to the foe and more about maintaining a cultural, religious and tactical framework in ancient society. Over the centuries however, that ambition was abandoned in favour of simply attaining a total victory over the enemy. ‘Civility’ was cast aside as the Greeks took on the position that the end justified the means in warfare.